Introduction
A change is an irreversible process that affects an
individual as well as an organization. A person or a group of people need to
know the nature and implications of change for the purpose of facilitating a
particular change. In educational theory and practice, Hargreaves (2003)
expressed the view that teaching plays a key role as an agent of change in a
knowledge society. Teaching is a complex activity requiring a maximum level of
professional development in order to perform it successfully.
Teachers need to
be familiar with a variety of strategies to achieve the highest level of
professional development. Sergiovanni (1999) suggested an effective strategy
for learning in which teachers learn how to learn together and develop special
relationships with the principal, with each other, and with the students.
The
idea of learning together gave birth to learning communities where the learning
needs of each member are addressed in order to promote social cohesion within a
locality (Yarnit, as cited in Kilpatrick, Barret & Jones, 2003). Carroll
(2000) explained that all the members work collaboratively to achieve common
goals, learn together and collectively solve problems. New knowledge is
acquired and skills are developed through the participation and contributions
of the members of the learning community.
Importance
of learning communities in education
A learning community is formed around relationships
and ideas creating social structures that bind the people to a set of shared
values and ideas for the purpose of collaborative learning, inquiry, and
generating knowledge (Sergiovanni, 2000). It involves learning activities in
which the individuals learn responsibly to contribute to collective learning. The
participants need to collaborate for shared discovery and learning rather than
depending upon traditional expert-centered lectures.
They can contribute to
achieving learning goals and enriching a learning community. Zepeda (2004)
stated the importance of generative learning as critical in an inquiry process.
Generative learning promotes the confidence among learners to solve problems
actively through inquiry, reflection, and application of a variety of effective
strategies for learning in a diverse social context.
In many communities, the workers work in isolation
which leads to a competitive culture in which they reluctantly share their
strengths and fear admitting weaknesses. The learning communities provide time
and opportunities for workers to develop collaboration and share freely their
successes and failures. Hargreaves
(2003) and Jessie (2007) agreed that schools as learning communities
focus on what is learned not on what is taught. The teachers observe each
other’s classes, collect data and identify need improvement areas and
collectively find solutions to problems. The focus is not on what teachers plan
to do but what the teachers actually do.
Educational institutions as
learning communities focus on broader community relationships and networks for
developing students’ abilities to play their role in society and creating
productive citizens. Economic
progress and students’ academic and social achievement may be ensured in a
learning community (Calderwood, as cited in Kilpatrick, Barrett & Jones, 2003).
According to research
separately conducted by Kezar and Collier (as cited in Kilpatrick, Barrett
& Jones, 2003), educational institutions as learning communities encourage
ways to reduce isolation and developing collaboration, curriculum integration,
up-to-date approaches to academic pursuits for the improvement of
students’ learning.
The
effectiveness of learning communities may be enhanced through creating a
professional culture. Research on leadership conducted by Zepeda (2004)
revealed that a professional culture within educational institutions involves
educational development and a sense of openness to enhance communicating
knowledge. Through an inquiry, effective decision making, and providing
feedback, the benefits of learning communities can be increased. Trust-building
is a condition of collaboration among the staff for applying new ideas and
reflecting on practices.
The education system in Pakistan particularly and in
developing countries generally lacks a collaborative culture and the
professionals mainly work in isolation. Shamim and Farah (2005) suggested ways
to promote a collaborative culture in which professional learning takes place
through inquiry, dialogue, and discussion among the staff.
An ongoing exploring culture needs to be created
in a school which develops the skills of problem-solving among the teachers
through analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information. Partnerships across
educational institutions can support creating a mutually supportive
environment in educational institutions. Teachers need improvement in the teaching
and learning process through collaboration for creating learning communities in
schools.
A traditional bureaucratic view has substantially influenced education
in Pakistan used during the colonial period in South Asia long ago. According to
Retallick and Datoo (2005), the model of learning communities can replace the
traditional features of bureaucracy, accountability, inspection, strict rules
and procedures in education through collaborative professional learning.
Scope of the study
The concept of a learning community came into the
discussions of practitioners in education in the 1980s and the researchers started
thinking to study it in the 1990s.
Hargreaves (2003) pointed out that in the 1980s and onwards efforts to
eliminate the culture of individualism and isolation and create a collaborative
culture in education led learning communities came into existence. Developing
countries need for creating learning communities to address a bureaucratic
approach to education where according to Retallick and Datoo (2005),
accountability, rules, and regulations coming from top-level management is a
constraint to create a collaborative culture.
The ideas, information and
insights presented in this study are based on books, edited books by
international writers, journal articles, research articles, and reports from
internet given by international organizations or universities related to
learning and professional learning communities in education. One edited book
consulted in this study contains articles on the basis of research studies
conducted in Pakistan edited by a Pakistani writer and an international writer.
Outline of the study
This study is comprised of five chapters. Chapter one contains the introduction of the
study involving the importance of learning communities in educational settings with
a justification of the study. A range of consulted sources, an outline of the
study, and the audience of the study have been identified.
Learning communities and their principles, professional
learning communities, their attributes/dimensions, outcomes, themes, and issues
which are addressed by those communities have been discussed in chapter two.
A thorough discussion of schools as professional
learning communities in the light of literature has been given in chapter
three. The incorporation of dimensions, outcomes, and themes of professional
learning communities in developing school culture has been explained.
Creating learning communities in a classroom is the
need for solving problems related to teaching and learning. Chapter four discusses
how teachers ensure classrooms to be effective which provides opportunities for
academic and social development of the students.
Chapter five is the concluding chapter in which the main issues
related to learning communities have been briefly explained.
This study presents an explanation of how people learn
collaboratively and share that learning to benefit others in the form of
learning communities. Professional learning communities in the 21st
century has become the necessity of professional groups, particularly in the education system. Educators, educational administrators, educational managers,
principals, and teachers in developing countries may get valuable insights to
create and sustain professional learning communities within their locality. The
teachers and students in schools need to create learning communities to
eliminate the culture of individualization and isolation to create a
collaborative culture.
This study will help the teachers to collaboratively
solve problems related to teaching and learning. Professional developers during
planning for professional development of teachers, principals, community
members, and social workers can consult this study to build values of trust,
building relationships, mutual interaction, collaboration, and collective success. The boards of directors or governors of
learning organizations, educational training centers, supervisors,
parent-teacher associations, and researchers may review this study to play their
roles in light of the demands of a fast-changing society.
Chapter 02: Professional learning communities
Introduction to professional learning communities
The fast pace of change in
the 21st century compels learners in society to apply innovative
and effective techniques of learning in their workplaces in order to be productive
members of society. The process of change emphasizes professional learners
to improve their practices for providing educative services effectively. The evolution of learning communities and the basic principles in them has been explained in the early sections of this chapter. A detailed explanation of dimensions, themes, and
strategies to sustain professional learning communities is presented in a later
part.
When a group of people comes
together who have common interests and cultural norms, committed to the achievement
of a set of common goals for a longer period of time then it is known as a
community. As defined by Ellis (2000), a community is a group of friends, a
locality or any supportive organization to reach a common end. It is an an extensive family which develops a sense of close relationships among the
members and keeps them informed of their environment through a set of diverse
human interactions.
A learning community
A learning community is a group of people formed for a common goal to ensure the needs of each and every member in which ideas are valued
to enhance learning opportunities and capacities by creating new knowledge to
develop an atmosphere of social interrelations within a society (Wenger,
McDermott & Snyder as cited in Beggeto, 2006; Kilpatrick, Barrett & Jones, 2003).
An endeavor by a group of individuals intending to
join people to each other in order to know how to learn is said to be a
learning community. According to Miller (2000) communities are built when a
group of people attempts to cooperatively achieve a common goal and learn
together by solving their problems collectively. In a learning community, the
members create new knowledge and develop new skills through their involvement
in a cooperative learning process.
Evolution of learning communities
The need for collaborative learning was felt by
practitioners in various professions such as medical, engineering, agriculture
and education in response to the global changes, knowledge economy and
information technology in the late 1980s (Yarnit, as cited in Kilpatrick, Barrett & Jones, 2003) so the pace of change in society required a shift in approach to learning.
Practitioners thought that communities need to apply a required approach to
learning experiences by discarding obsolete ideas to ensure a flourishing
future (Smyre, 2000).
According to
Hord (1997) and Williams (2000), the term learning communities was used
for collaborative learning and problem solving within groups after Senge’s vision of learning organization in the early 1990s. In contrast Retallick and Datoo
(2005) linked learning communities with Dewey’s philosophy of education in the early twentieth century which advocated learning that was active,
student-centered, and involved a shared inquiry.
The idea of learning communities was used as a
significant curricular design in educational institutions. In larger universities such as the University of Oregon and the University of Washington,
various models of learning community including residential, virtual and
Freshman Interest Groups (FIG) formed an expanded industry of information
particularly in general education curricula (Williams, 2000).
The private sector in the United States of America paid more attention to create
learning communities as Deal and Kennedy (as cited in Hord, 1997) argued that business and private industry managers
used cultural factors to bring changes in the performance of their staff.
Senge, Block, and Whyte (as cited in Hord, 1997) signified nurturing and
recognition of each staff member which maximizes their involvement in
cooperative activities such as decision making, problem identification, gaol
formation and problem resolution.
Basic learning community principles
Effective learning takes place in a group of people when
relevant principles are applied in the approach to it. Learning communities are
formed for collective learning, investigation, and generating knowledge (Centre
for Integration of Research, Teaching, and Learning [CITRL], 2006). Smyre (2000)
predicted that learning in the future will be generative which is ensured by
collaborative efforts based on a set of common goals. All the participants in a
learning community are responsible to work for achieving common goals. The
following four principles are important for the learning community process.
Shared
discovery and learning
The individuals in a learning community responsibly
contribute learning for its sustained achievements and effectiveness within which
the participants need to collaborate in discovery and learning rather than
waiting for experts. The individuals may contribute in achieving goals and
enriching learning community (CIRTL, 2006).
Kilpatrick, Barrett, and Jones
(2003) contented that learning among the
members of a learning community are raised when they work with common
interests while sharing their knowledge, skills, and experiences for shared
purposes.
Functional
connections among learners
Individuals within a learning community when have significant,
functional, and purposeful interactions with each other to carry out learning
tasks, achievement of common goals can be ensured. Meaningful linkages need to
be extended to all the members who are responsible to accomplish the tasks
assigned by the community (CIRTL, 2006). A leader defines the vision but does not
work on it without creating linkages among the people. The purpose of creating linkages is to
provide opportunities where the people share ideas, interests, and wills to
bring about the changes in their behaviors (Watkins and Marsick as cited in Kilpatrick, Barrett & Jones, 2003).
Connections
to other related learning and life experiences
The members of a learning community need to extend their interactions to
other associated learning and life experiences. With an increase in the pace of
change in society, Smyer (2000) claimed that knowledge is also expanded,
communications spread and relationships among people increase fast. The
learners can increase their learning through expanding the circle of learning
and experiences in an atmosphere of knowledge expansion, widespread communication, and a large number of human linkages. Joyce and Showers (as cited in Dean,
2005) suggested that learners must avail themselves the opportunities of participating in
daily life activities to take initiative and support others for doing the same. The extended linkages also help learners
develop a sense of belonging rather than isolation.
Inclusive
learning environment
Learning communities flourish when individuals with different
backgrounds and experiences are encouraged to draw attention towards collective
learning. A text given by CIRTL (2006) revealed that learning activities in
which the participants interact with other individuals of different backgrounds
and experiences need to be included in the activities of a learning community.
A similar statement was given by Smyre (2000) that new patterns emerge from new
and diverse interactions. He emphasized that in order to introduce new ways of
learning the individuals need to develop the abilities to interact with people
who have diverse backgrounds in a learning community.
Professional
learning communities
A common goal of a professional learning community is to ensure collective
learning through collaborative problem-solving. As defined by Reichstetter
(2006), a professional
learning community is a group of people belonging to the same profession
to achieve a common goal. For example a community of principals of educational institutions, a
community of teachers, a community of doctors, a community of politicians, and a
community of businesspersons. The members continuously collaborate for
improvement in their practices by addressing the learning needs of an
individual as well as the group.
Hargreaves (2003) declared that an important
function of a professional learning community is to bring together the knowledge,
skills, and dispositions of the members to promote shared learning and
improvement. A professional learning community is a social process that turns
information into knowledge. It works on the principle that new ideas, new
knowledge, inquiry, and sharing are crucial to solving problems in a society
with the fast pace of change. Professional learning communities function
effectively in a culture of caring, long-term relationships, trust, and
commitments.
Dimensions
of a professional learning community
A professional learning community functions around
three aspects of improving a situation: First; a shared vision, mission,
values, and purpose, second; collaborative work to achieve common goals and
third; focusing attention on results what were desired (Eaker, DuFour &
DuFour, as cited in Rentfro, 2007). All the members must develop a common
vision and collaboratively work for the achievement of common goals. New and a
variety of learning strategies need to be applied in problem-solving
activities. The participants need to be professionally developed by ensuring
their involvement in the cooperative activities of the group (Jalongo, as cited in
Hord, 1997). A professional learning community has the following dimensions.
Shared leadership as a basic dimension of a learning
community
An important dimension deals with the effective
operation of a professional community where all the members take a
responsibility for the tasks to be accomplished. This shared sense of
responsibility is known as shared leadership in which the tasks are
accomplished on the basis of the assumption that participants are able and
willing to take the responsibility. Doyle and Smith (1999) added that the shared
leadership process involves actions of the members of a group that help the
group as a whole, the relationships among members to work and achieve common
goals. According to Morrissey’s (2000) point of view the members question,
investigate, find problems in the situation and seek solutions for improvement
in their practices.
The members grow professionally and learn to work together
to achieve collective goals. The members demonstrate a willingness to
participate in discussions and take responsibility for making decisions within
the community. Gentil (as cited in Doyle & Smith, 1999) asserted that the practices
of ownership, learning, and sharing are central to create an environment where
the individuals are motivated and showing a willingness to take responsibility
and develop relationships to work for common goals. Hord (1997) argued that
problems and issues are responsibly addressed by all the individuals getting
equal chances to share and participate. People can share, understand and
contribute to the collective success of a professional group through an emphasis on
learning and development of all within a learning community.
A shared
vision, mission, values, and goals
Another fundamental dimension of a professional
learning community is the shared vision, mission, values, and goals. Hord (1997)
stated that shared values and vision guide the members in making decisions
about their work and support norms within the group. Sirotnik and Little (as
cited in Morrissey, 2000) added that values are embedded in day-to-day
activities in which the members engage and develop the commitments and apply
talents to contribute in a group effort that ensures learning of high
intellectual quality.
The values then create norms of a self-aware,
self-critical, and increasingly effective professional learning community
utilizing the commitments of the members to sustain improvement. Sergiovanni
(1994) noted that the effectiveness depends upon what the community together
shares, believes, and wants to accomplish. The idea of shared vision, mission,
values, and goals becomes the source of authority for the people to do their
work.
A collective inquiry
develops problem-solving skills
The collective inquiry as a dimension of learning communities includes
reflective dialogues, discussions about problems involving the application of
new knowledge in a sustained manner, frequent examinations of practice through
mutual observation and case studies, the seeking of new knowledge, implicit the knowledge that is constantly converted into shared knowledge through
interaction and application of new ideas and information to problem-solving
(Fullan & Hord, as cited in Bolam et al, 2005).
Ball and Cohen (1999)
emphasized that a collective inquiry as an investigation of the practices by
member is a key element in their professional learning which is ensured when
the members learn things by applying their prior knowledge in practices,
questions, investigations, analysis, and criticism are emphasized. Investigating
problems and finding appropriate solutions are essential activities in the
acquisition and improvement of professional knowledge.
Working
with collaborative teams
One of the dimensions of a professional community involves work on
assigned specific tasks to be done by the workers in collaborative teams. A
collaborative team as defined by Hunt (2006) is a group of people with a single
common goal to achieve for which all the individuals have to work. There is a
genuine possibility for the group to achieve the goal. The individuals and groups
perform various functions at the workplace for meaningful learning where they
need to exercise some form of overall coordination to maintain focus on the
common goal.
A collaborative team meeting is more than getting the members of a group
together to share a collected data. Jessie (2007) claimed that in a
collaborative team the individuals meet to achieve a common goal in which
instead of sharing data about their practices they respond to data. Responding to data requires a sense of mutual
accountability and change in practices. Sergiovanni (1994) contented that
members enjoy working together, being useful to each other as they engage in
interdependent work, and sharing commitments to a common good.
Learning
within professional learning, communities is viewed as a process of supporting
and developing the capacities of a team to ensure the attainment of results
which the members truly desire. The people need to be able to act together for
learning which builds on personal mastery and shared vision. When teams learn
together there cannot be seen only good results for the group but also the members
professionally grow more rapidly. Team
learning starts with a dialogue and with the capacity of members of a team to keep
assumptions apart and they enter into genuine thinking together.
Collaborative learning also helps the members to recognize the patterns of
interactions in teams that lessen learning.
Actions
and experimentations as a way to increase knowledge
Actions and experimentations as a dimension of
professional communities aim to develop the members emphasizing the process of
change in workplace practices through taking steps of improvement and finding
their impacts. Jennings (2006) conferred that the participants collaboratively
conduct activities on the basis of research results and inquire about the
impacts of actions taken in a professional workplace. The participants collaboratively develop hypotheses and test hypotheses in
their workplace for the purpose of contributing to developing, testing, and
evaluating theories. Which in turn enhances the participants’ knowledge,
develops skills and values required for effective performance in their
professional lives.
While the participants engaging themselves in the action-oriented and experimentation processes demonstrate tolerance for results that
were not anticipated. Failed experiments serve as an opportunity to learn more
and begin again for the participants of a professional learning community. Smyre (2000) declared that the development of a
professional learning community connecting diverse people, new ideas, and
fundamentally different concepts, methods, and techniques may ensure a growing
future of a community. Hord (as cited in Morrissey, 2000) added that
professional learning communities engage members at all levels in processes
that collectively seek new knowledge and ways of applying that knowledge to
execute their tasks producing creative and appropriate solutions to problems.
Continuous
improvement among the members as a dimension
A professional learning community serves to
increase the collective capacities and creativity of a group through
continually expanding their capacities to achieve the results that were
desired. Within the process of expanding capacities, new and significant
patterns of thinking are developed, collective targets are set and people
continually learn how to learn together (Senge, as cited in Hord, 1997).
Jennings (2006) explained that each member is continually engaged in considering
the fundamental purpose, hopes to
achieve, strategies for becoming better, and criteria to assess improvement
efforts. Dufour (2004) declared that a learning community is an exciting model of doing hard work and a
powerful new way of working together that strongly affects the practices of
members in a group. Initiating and sustaining such communities require
continuous hard work and the members need to keep themselves accountable for
the kind of results that increase continual improvement.
Supportive
Conditions
Another dimension of learning communities is providing supportive
conditions for members. A situation which is helpful for the members to come
together for collective learning, make decisions, solve problems and work
creatively is known as a supportive condition. There are two types of
conditions necessary for professional learning communities to function
productively namely physical or structural setup and the human capacities
(Boyd, Louis & Kruse, as cited
in Hord, 1997).
a.
Physical
Conditions or structural setup
The
time to meet and talk, size of a school, a closer distance between the members
to one another, interdependent roles, a communication pattern, self-governance
and empowerment of members are the factors that support professional learning
communities (Louis & Kruse as cited in Hord, 1997). The availability of
resources, schedules, and structures that make linkages, policies that encourage collaboration,
communication and staff development are the factors identified by Boyd (as
cited in Hord, 1997) for smooth functioning of a professional learning
community. Beghetto (2006) emphasized
the supportive climate that involves a sense of community and belongingness,
affection and respect in personal relations and feeling of safety and security
among the members.
b.
People Capacities
The characteristics among the members namely
willingness to accept feedback for improvement, respect, and trust among
colleagues, ownership of a body of knowledge and skills for effective
performance, supportive shared leadership, and ability to deal with challenges
learning activities are important to establish strong linkages among them
(Hord, 1997). People’s capacities needed to create conditions for effective the function is given by Boyd (as cited in Hord, 1997).
Include constructive thinking,
motivation and engagement with learning, critical inquiry, and continuous
improvement, a good sense of vision, involvement in decision making, friendly
relationships among the staff. Haberman (2004) added that the members are
persistent in utilizing their capacities have good physical and emotional
stamina, are committed to acknowledge and appreciate good efforts, willingly
admit mistakes and have skills in organizing things.
Themes
in professional learning communities
The
base on which the participants in a professional learning community construct
learning consists of four key themes. The four key themes around which learning
communities function declared by Morrissey (2000) are: first; a way of
operating, second; change requires learning while learning motivates change, third;
the staff continuously work and learn thus continuous improvement is valued and
fourth; the dimensions of a professional learning community are interdependent.
A
Way of Operating
One of the important components of professional learning communities is
the involvement of staff in continuous inquiry to develop understanding. Morrissey
explained that the involvement of staff in inquiry is an ongoing process during
which changes are made in the practices according to the situation. The members
invest their knowledge, skills, and abilities to bring out changes in their way
of working to address needs of high professional development. The members
actively maintain all the five dimensions of a professional learning community,
as interrelated pieces, stable in crucial times, and considered essential for
collective performance within the workplace.
Professional learning communities
promote important societal attributes namely teamwork, inquiry, and continuous
learning declared by Hargreaves (2003). The participants exchange their
knowledge, skills, and traits with each other to develop shared learning and improvement.
Fullan (as cited in Hargreaves, 2003) contented that new ideas, creation of
knowledge, inquiry, and sharing are essential to address problems related to
learning in the pace of fast-changing society.
The
Relationship of Change and Learning
In professional learning communities the members believe that change requires learning according to
the principle that a person cannot improve without knowing how to improve. For example staff
of a school that functions as a professional learning community not only needs the
reasons to make changes but also to have a clear understanding of bringing change
in their teaching and learning processes. To value the change, educators first
learn what they need to know about the change. Reciprocally learning motivates change. The learning
among the members motivates them to make significant changes in their patterns
of thinking and actions.
Once the members of a professional learning community
begin to learn that there are other ways and means for achieving goals, they
initiate the necessary actions for learning and making changes (Fullan &
Miles as cited in Morrissey, 2000). While Senge (as cited in Retallick &
Datoo, 2005) agreed that “Systems thinking of a discipline involves leverage
which means observing where actions and changes in structures may result in
significant, enduring improvements” (p. 14).
For observing actions and changes, an individual needs to have clear
understanding of the ways of taking actions and making changes in structures.
If the person finds out improvements in the result of actions and changes, he/she
gets motivated to incorporate new and innovative strategies to improve
practices for making changes.
An
Embedded Value
The staff members value their involvement in learning and improvement on
the basis of discussions and decisions (Morrissey, 2000). The value of
professional learning communities is created by the staff being as deeply
working-focused as they are result-focused. Without transforming members into
professionally developed individuals, learning communities cannot be
transformed into productive and effective places for the learning of the
members. The professional development of members is considered as a critical
component of the course of professional learning to produce a high-quality
learned group.
For example, when teachers in a school are provided with support
to develop professionally, they engage themselves in learning to improve their
practices in the classroom, thus they value continuous learning regarding teaching
and learning (Little, as cited in Morrissey, 2000; Renshaw, 2002). Hargreaves
(2003) continued that teachers signify their involvement in continuous
professional learning and regard it as an individual and collective duty to use
a variety of ways in their practices to enhance students’ learning.
Interdependence
among the dimensions
The dimensions of a professional community namely shared leadership,
shared vision and values, collective inquiry, collaborative teams, action and
experimentation, continuous improvement and supportive conditions need to be
effectively worked to sustain the existence, held by (Hord, 1997). These
dimensions are interlinked to each other and interrelated.
In developing
professional learning communities, the participants need to actively create supportively
conditions and share leadership and encourage collective learning among them.
Retallick and Datoo (2005) stated that all the participants within a
professional learning community are expected to play the leadership roles
(regarded as model learners), participate and find value in collective learning
and problem-solving and apply learning experiences to their practices.
The strength of relationships between administrators and staff members
of an organization is the foundation of all the dimensions of professional
learning communities. Morrissey (2000) contended that progress is made when
administrators and staff seek ways to learn together and apply research-based
techniques in daily practices, working for achieving a common goal of increasing
professional learning.
Sustaining
professional learning communities
Professional learning communities may be sustained for a long period of
time on the basis of essential principles of effective functioning. The
suggested principles to sustain communities are; depth and breadth,
stability and change, diversity and focus, and networking and integration (Louis,
2008).
Depth
and breadth
The members need to work freely on tasks over a long period of
time. Louis suggested that the members
while working in collaborative teams need to be able to deal with new dilemmas, involve new members with enthusiasm, and increase their focus on meeting arising
needs. Self-assessment, support from critical friends, persistent work, and
responsive adaptation should be continued. As Dufour (2004) said that
complications and problems are unavoidable because those are the products of the change process. The members need to accept and address dilemmas and problems
that may lead to work on tasks for a longer period of time.
Stability
and change
The productivity of teams depends upon stability in team efforts and
relationships. Kruse and Louis ( as cited in Louis, 2008) stated that the
mobilization of the team and administrative decisions create situations where the
members spend more time building trust with new members rather than focus on
work. Stable teams being cohesive may work for planning and change within the
professional learning community.
Diversity
and focus
Diversity and focus is another way of sustaining professional learning
communities in which teams are formed by members with diverse abilities and
experiences. Teams with members of alike-thinking focus more on work because
trust is built easily. According to the findings of research conducted by
Bolam, Stoll, and Greenwood (as cited in Louis, 2008), groups comprised of members with diverse opinions and
backgrounds lead to effective problem finding and problem-solving over a period
of time. The balance between groups involving diversity and role-alike groups
needs to be created within a learning community.
Networking
and integration
The equilibrium between the internal environment which involves the
productivity of collaborative teams and the influences of the external environment
which involve demands of the society is important to sustain learning
communities. Bolam et al.
(2005) discussed that external and internal contextual factors of a
professional learning community are complex and dynamic to be controlled using
both the opportunities and the limitations of a staffs’ capacities. The terms namely
focus on professionalism and focus on community as used by Louis (2008) for
external influences and internal productivity of teams respectively.
Excessive
professionalism is the influence of external elements such as diversity, breadth,
networking, and change while community involves a focus on work, depth,
integration, and stability. Excessive professionalism leads to disintegration in
professional learning communities and reinforces a tradition of members as
self-ruling individuals. Focus on community leads to self-satisfied teams in
which challenges may not be created. Equilibrium between focusing on
professionalism and focus on community is necessary for sustaining professional
learning communities.
Conclusion
An organization or any other group of hard-working people needs to focus
its attention on three major areas namely collaborative work, work for the achievement of a common goal, and mutual relationships is known as a learning
community. A group of professional learners involves the dimensions of shared
leadership, shared vision, collaborative efforts, action, and experimentation
oriented group, teamwork, continuous improvement, supportive conditions.
All
these dimensions are not possible to be addressed at one time for a learning
community but from time to time professionals try to address all the dimensions
within the groups. The dimensions are interrelated and interdependent (Hord as
cited in Morrissey, 2000), in conclusion, if some of the dimensions are
incorporated in a learning community then there will be a need felt for other
dimensions. The next chapter will be discussed how schools work as professional
learning communities.
Chapter 03: Schools as professional learning
communities
Introduction
Schools are known to be transformed into professional
learning communities when apparent operations on the basis of dimensions of
professional learning communities. This chapter deals with three major areas of
schools as professional learning communities mainly the dimensions of professional
learning communities in schools; the outcomes of schools as professional
learning communities; and low performing schools versus the dimensions of
professional learning communities. Various dimensions namely shared leadership,
shared values, and vision, collective creativity, collaborative teams and trust,
respect, and mutual relationships are located in the relevant literature.
The
observable outcome of schools as professional learning communities includes
increased students’ learning, a culture of collaboration, institutional
capacity, students’ assessment, increased student-student interaction, and
student-staff interactions. The issue in low-performing schools related to the organizational
structure, a focus on improvement, personal and social dynamics, contextual
influences, and leadership. These contrasting situations examined parallel to the
dimensions of professional learning communities for assisting low-performing
schools.
A school may be called a professional learning
community when three major components of planning, execution, and evaluation are
effectively performed by the staff members. Planning requires shared leadership
for developing vision, mission, goals, and values; execution involves
collaborative actions by the teachers, administrator, students, and support
staff for achieving goals of the school; and evaluation involves decision
making by the staff members through sharing best practices during collaborative
actions.
Hargreaves (2003) found that schools as professional learning
communities focus on three themes, collaborative actions, and discussions among the
staff members in a school, regular attendance of teachers towards teaching and
learning and gathering data for evaluating progress and students’ learning
overtime. Hord (as cited in Morrissey, 2000) regarded the schools as
professional learning communities in which the staff consistently works under
supportive and shared leadership; shared values and vision; collective learning
and application of learning; supportive conditions; and shared personal
practice. The characteristics of schools that function as professional
learning communities explored by researchers are discussed in the following
pages.
Shared
leadership
Schools may be transformed into professional learning communities with
the principal’s active support for the professional development of the whole staff
as a community. A principal’s role as signified by Zepeda (2004) is a
significant feature in exploring how schools can be transformed into
professional learning communities. The principal needs to create such an
environment where the staff will come together to achieve the common goals of the
school. The principals, administrators, and teachers need to be learners, inquirers, discoverers, problems solvers, and
solution seekers for school improvement.
As Kleine-Kracht (as cited in Hord,
1997) demonstrated that the traditional top-down pattern of relationships to
manage a school has been changed. There is parallelism among those who know
more and those who know less but they need to contribute to enhancing the
effectiveness of the school. Retallick and Datoo (2005) added that the
principals are called leading learners in professional learning communities emphasizing
that teaching and learning is a process closely relational to teachers and
encourages them to improve their practices.
A student-centered approach by the principal is one of
the key ideas of a school as an effective professional learning community. Hargreaves
described the role of the principal of the Blue Mountain School in Ontario
which possessed the essence of a knowledge-society school. The principal
established the school as a professional learning community and believed that
schools should provide learning opportunities that students would experience
when they graduated.
Achieving that vision, the principal required a
professional culture that engaged teachers, support staff, students, and the
community in defining the school’s goals and how to achieve them. The relationships
with the community were established through monthly meetings and parents were
asked to work with the staff to define the knowledge, skills, and values they
wanted for the students. During hiring staff for the school the principal
considered the interrelationships and consequences for other schools and the set
criteria which matched with other schools.
When the principal established the
team of ten teachers initially he did not allocate specific roles to the staff
to create a sense of a whole among them rather than separate entities. Staff
meetings, meetings of the school council, and leadership team meetings were
carefully planned. Each meeting started with the system’s issues and every
individual was free to identify problems that were there dealt with by the staff
members and fear of blame was removed as it would lead to hiding issues.
The
same procedure of meetings was used in individual advisory sessions and
collective meetings with the students that led the students to take the responsibility
for bringing change to the school. In a project to transform a school into a
learning community, Servgiovanni (1994) shared the story of a principal whose shared
leadership started from one of the meetings with two parents to develop
exploring skills among the students. With the passage of time more and more
parents and staff joined the scheduled meeting thus developing a vision for
staff and students’ learning that eventually took the shape of a project.
The principal’s efforts were evidently decisive in
creating the situation necessary to build a professional learning community.
The data of a case study conducted by Zepeda (2004) looking at the work of a
principal in a school who used instructional supervision for developing a
learning community revealed that the first steps were building trust and
rapport with the teachers. Zepeda found from the data that the principal
created conditions where the teachers examined their practices.
Which encouraged
them to form a learning community. She got an insight that leadership needs
to be shared in such a way that every individual should perform the role of
leadership according to the required expertise at any one time. The principal
relinquished her top-down control and provided the opportunity to teachers to
come forward to create and craft new ways to develop themselves professionally.
Vision
and goals
In a
school as exemplified by professional learning communities, the purpose of
sharing vision and goals by the principal with the staff is not only to get
approved by the staff but to enable and encourage them to realize what is important
for them and for the school. According to Hord (1997), the staff of the school gets
involved in the process of developing a vision to use it as a true guideline in
their practices.
Beghetto (2006) and
Hord (1997) agreed that one of the important characteristics of school as a professional learning community is the due attention of staff on students’
learning as a common goal. Students are foreseen as capable of learning and
learning opportunities are provided to maximize their academic potentials by
the staff. Effective professional communities have a common attribute, a vision
that makes the climate of learning the highest priority (Haberman, 2004).
The search for learning is not a part of the content that can be taught but is a value that teachers model. The teachers who
are passionate, internally motivated to learning can truly teach the joy of
learning to the students. The goal of lifelong learning for the students is
meaningless unless the transforming a school into a professional learning
community in which teachers demonstrate engagement in meaningful learning
activities. These are the shared values and purposes that bind the staff
members together.
In a
school focussed on promoting a professional learning community, the principal
develops the vision and sets goals involving the staff members, parents and
students. Hargreaves (2003) described the way of developing such a vision and
formation of goals by a principal who on with the help of staff and the the community gained vital support for establishing the school as a professional
learning community.
The goals formed served as guiding principles and stand as
criteria to assess the school’s effectiveness and set high expectations for learning for all students
and staff, provided; all the students with knowledge, skills, and values;
culture of cooperation and collegiality; and opportunities for participation of
community in school’s efforts. Sergiovanni (1994) shared the experiences of a
principal in a school whose transformation into a professional learning
community occurred because the school and the community pulled together to
accomplish a common goal to make their school a better place for the children.
Collective
creativity
The
schools that function as professional learning communities have another
characteristic that teachers from diverse backgrounds and experiences
collaboratively work for raising their abilities to create new patterns of
learning for themselves and for the students. A reflective dialogue as highlighted
by Louis and Kruse (as cited in Hord, 1997), in a school is a form of collaborative
creative work where teachers discuss issues regarding teaching and learning
process and seek solutions. Miller (2000) added that the diversity of patterns
and ideas relevant to learning in schools encourages openness to
experimentation, innovation, and flexibility which teachers need to demonstrate
in the teaching and learning process.
In
Hargreaves’s (2003) case study teachers had diverse backgrounds and
experiences. Many had joined the school
from other fields of life namely radio broadcasting, communications consulting,
steelwork, and the automobile industry. Through them, a set of diverse
experiences and a strong source of outside learning were brought into
teaching.
Hargreaves found that teachers
explored that opportunities for taking responsibility, problem-solving,
decision making, and planning were the ways to achieve their personal visions of the student-centered teaching and learning process. Teachers were enthusiastic
while interacting with their colleagues, involving risk-taking tasks and
experimentations in teaching to develop a variety of ways to engage students in
learning.
Many teachers experienced enhanced professional growth in the
school where they internalized new ways of working and thinking. A school that
functions as a professional learning community described by Carver (as cited in
Goldstein, 2004) as it provides a safe environment for teachers to share their
practice with their peers and freely discuss issues and concerns, successes and
failures.
Collaborative
teamwork
Various teams are built to work for specified tasks in an effective
school. Teamwork in a school where teachers collaboratively plan twice a
week is discussed by Rentfro (2007) as they plan and pace instruction first and
then they identify and solve problems of at-risk students. All grade-level
teams also meet twice weekly to discuss each at-risk learner and to identify
the instructional practices that provide the best results. The school has a
team of four literacy coaches that arranges professional development sessions
for teachers and share ideas with staff and students regarding learning.
Teachers and administrators take part in non-participant observations in
classrooms to maintain learning and to improve instruction. All grade-level
teachers have a daily, 45-minute common planning time. Each team keeps a
journal to record meeting agendas, lists of at-risk students, common
assessments, grade-level expectations, and data used to monitor progress.
Teachers take the responsibility for weekly collaborative meetings to turn by turn
in terms of planning, facilitating, and taking notes. Collaborative teams share
agendas, minutes from meetings, and common assessment results with
administrators who take attendance during collaborative planning time.
Professional development sessions are conducted throughout the year to improve
the practices of the collaborative teams.
Teams of teachers across subjects and team teaching provide effective
practices for teachers to improve student's learning in a school. The work of three
teams formed by English and social studies teachers in a secondary school to
reduce the rate of high failures among the students is shared by (Sergiovanni,
1994). The result was the development of a humanities program as well as successful teaching and learning experience for both the teachers and students.
Collaborative teams focus their attention on students’ learning and team
members responsibly participate in group activities to provide opportunities
for learning. Bolam et al. (2005) found in an extensive case study in the nursery,
primary and secondary schools that in three of the nursery schools teachers and
support staff together planned the learning activities for the children. They
found from the data that in primary schools a sense of collective
responsibility was apparent among the sections and the younger, less
experienced teachers so arrangements for team teaching were planned. For
example in science, two teachers were allocated to each class so the potential
for sharing was greater.
Collaborative work and sharing information are necessary to develop a
sense of collective responsibility among the staff for pupil learning. Teams in
professional learning schools need to have a strong sense of working together and
a desire to do the best for all the students. Hargreaves (2003) observed during
a case study in a school that the diverse teams of staff namely the key process
team, management team, leadership team, school advisory council were well
organized and responsible to accomplish their assigned tasks.
The key process team was the backbone of the school and a powerful source of continuous learning to be
planned. These teams were headed by middle-level management individuals who were
supposed to report to the leadership team and act as an important integrating force
within the school. Process teams were also working on assessment and
evaluation, curriculum review and instruction, recognition, attitude, and moral, and teacher advisory groups.
Management teams were temporary and event-driven
task groups. They consisted of faculty and students who voluntarily performed the specific
tasks assigned by key process teams. The leadership team consisted of the
principal, vice-principal, and heads of key process teams working for the vision
of the school and communicating across teams as well as helping key process
teams and management teams in identifying issues and seek alternatives.
Relationships
based on trust
Teacher-teacher interaction is a practice of finding out the strengths
and weaknesses of an individual for recognition and improvement respectively is
a norm in a school which tries to be a professional learning community.
Wignall (as cited in Hord, 1997) described the culture
of a high school in which sharing of practices, enhanced interactions, and common
understanding among the staff were indicators of a helpful and supportive
environment. Teachers abide by the rules during debates, discussions and show disagreements
with each other while openly sharing their successes and failures.
Mutual respect, trust, and support ensure personal practices and
experience to be shared among the staff.
An extensive case study reported by Bolam et al. (2005) revealed that ineffective schools, important features were interrelations and openness among
the staff for professional learning. The head of the same school said that primarily the teachers as the greatest
resource, so their collaboration and high expectations for students’ learning
play a vital role in doing their best for school. She was paid more for an
official duty to care for them. The same case study was extended to five
primary schools which found that one of the frequently mentioned factors
of school improvement was a supportive
culture valuing all individuals and learning. A teacher responded during
an interview in the case study that:
Everybody is very positive.
There is nobody in the school I do not feel able to approach in a professional
or personal capacity to pass the time of day or raise an issue that is causing
concern. We have got strong personalities and no real shy retiring types
who will not be able to make themselves heard? There is a lot of respect
really, that is the best word for it. . . I know if I have an issue I can go
and talk to the person it concerns, be it about a particular child or area of
concern in one of my subject responsibilities and I know they shall take it on
board and then feel comfortable enough to try it or say ‘I could really do with
something else there (Bolam et al. 2005, p. 90).
Analysis
of the quotation gives an insight that hiding problems because of shyness are the
results of no close relations among the teachers. There is no harm in learning
to improve practices through sharing failures or challenges on small or greater
concerns with relevant individuals. Building trust and expending relationships
create an environment where staff members freely discuss their concerns with
each other and find the solutions collectively to provide relevantly
opportunities for students’ learning.
Teachers
within schools need to share the dynamics and classroom processes in which interventions,
dilemmas and contradictory demands in their classroom teaching and learning the process can be discussed (Hoban, 2002). Trust and mutual relationships among
the staff is preconditioned to share dynamics and classroom practices. Research
on learning, communities in schools conducted Caldwell and Kaari (as cited in
Louis (2008) revealed that trust-building requires an agreement between the
principal and staff members, their behaviors that they initially desire. For a
sustained trust, a principal needs to; pay attention to building blocks of trust
in the process; trust in staff’s confidence to participate; and trust in the
role of support staff in learning activities of a school.
For strategies to
develop trust, confidence, and communication, Shamim and Farah (2005) presented
the findings of action research to provide a school-based professional
development program that the member's used strategies such as encouraging
silence to give time for more reserved members to speak, establish a norm to
speak turn by turn by the members, giving verbal and non-verbal feedback for
giving the importance and value of what was shared.
Outcomes of schools as
professional learning communities
Schools
are transformed into professional learning communities by paying attention to
students’ improved learning. The factors which are crucial for students’
holistic development and self-esteem are also crucial for the staff to ensure
learning outcomes of a learning community as stated by (Sarason as cited in
Hord, 1997). The mutual relationships
between staff and students help in creating an environment where the teachers
and students get well organized as a community. Williams (2000) declared that
outcomes of a learning community experience can be seen in the areas such as
student-to-student interaction, student-to-faculty interaction, creation of
community, retention of enrolled students, and critical thinking among the
staff. Following are some of the outcomes of professional learning communities.
Students’
learning
Creating schools as professional learning communities involves learning
to be ensured for students as well as teachers. Dufour (2004) and Rentfro
(2007) agreed that the paradigm shift among the teachers from focus teaching to
focus learning has changed the school culture from a traditional bureaucratic
culture to a democratic culture. In a
school as professional learning community teachers find the gaps between their
commitment to ensuring learning for all students and their lack of effective
strategies to address when some students do not learn. The staff addresses such
issues by designing strategies to ensure that those students will get extra
time and support.
A professional learning community helps the students by
quickly identifying those who need extra time and support them as soon as they
experience difficulty in learning rather than waiting for remedial classes. Systematic
planning requires the students
to devote extra time and receive additional assistance until they have mastered
the necessary concepts. Hord (1997) asserted that the teachers in a
professional learning community agree to a vision of authentic and intellectual
work for students that involves challenging learning tasks and clear goals for
high-quality learning. Thus students’ high-quality learning is ensured as the result of creating professional learning communities in schools.
A
Culture of Collaboration
The teachers in an effective school feel that they need to work
collaboratively to achieve their collective purposes of learning for all. They formulate structures to promote a supportive
culture where the actual collaboration is a systematic process during which the
teachers work together to analyze and improve their classroom practice.
Teachers work in teams, collectively seek answers to a set of questions that
promote professional learning (Dufour, 2004).
Collaborative meetings, according to Rentfro (2007) are conducted by the
teachers in schools to plan for pacing instruction and to identify problems of
at-risk students and solving them by identifying the instructional practices
that provide the best results. Collaborative teams share agendas, minutes from
meetings and common assessment results with administrators. Professional
development on the basis of need improvement areas identified in meetings is
provided to team members from time to time to improve the performance of
collaborative teams.
Students’
assessment
Transforming schools into professional learning communities ensures
improvement in the measurement of students’ learning and in the assessment
procedures. Rentfro (2007) stated that collaborative teams in the initial
meetings with the administration review results of assessments based on common standards
identify slow learners and formulate goals and develop an action plan to
achieve goals. The next meetings are conducted to monitor progress, discuss
issues, develop implementation plans and celebrate successes. Progress is
monitored through peer assessment and the assessments which determine the type
and intensity of interventions to meet students’ needs.
Dufour (2004) and
Jessie (2007) elaborated how teacher teams develop common formative assessments
throughout the school year to ensure student's learning. The teachers identify
the performance of students by comparing the results of current and previous
assessments so they collectively reflect and make changes in their common
practices in classrooms. Each teacher has access to the ideas, materials,
strategies, and talents of the entire team. This way students’ assessment system
in a school is made effective and meaningful for achieving a common purpose of
students’ enhanced learning.
Institutional
capacity
Teachers need to be professionally developed to ensure high quality
learning tasks are employed to improve students’ learning. The most successful
schools functioning as professional communities are those where teachers help
each other, work collaboratively, take individual and collective responsibility
for student learning and keep themselves engaged in activities that develop
their capacities as required for teaching and learning (Hord, 1997). The
schools as professional learning communities offer more authentic strategies
which are tested and verified for teachers to improve their practices.
Student-
student interactions
Schools
operating as professional learning communities encourage greater student engagement
both academically and socially during learning experiences. Interactions among
the students are complementary ingredients for an effective learning process
within a school. Lindblad (as cited in Williams, 2000) continued that learning
communities have enriched; students’ retention and persistence; they're critical
thinking; acceptance of others’ ideas; self-awareness; and motivation towards
learning. The significant achievement of students is their extended ability to
understand each others’ points of view and their engagement in activities of analysis
and synthesis of ideas which expanded student-student interactions. Hord (1997)
added that in schools that are characterized as professional learning
community, fewer academics gaps are found among the students from culturally
diverse backgrounds.
Staff-student
interactions
Successful
schools apparently benefit students through increased relationships with staff
members to reduce their difficulties during work to accomplish learning tasks.
Williams (2000) highlighted that one of the important outcomes of a learning
community experience for students in the formation of new relationships with
peers and faculty. The same way the faculty often experiences new ways of
relating to students as collaborators and collective learners. Another
experience is the creation of new relationships between faculty and
administrators and among faculty of different subject disciplines.
As a result
educators tend to undertake research and scholarship related to teaching. While
learning to gather in a school, Sergiovanni (1999) stated that there are
special bonds developed between teachers and the principal, between teachers
and students, between teachers and the administrative staff. These bonds of
kinship, bonds of caring, bonds of commitment are formed in those schools which
operate as professional learning communities.
Low
performing schools and dimensions of professional learning communities
The Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (SEDL) launched a
project study to assist low performing schools through partnerships by providing
materials, resources, and group facilitation.
Morrissey (2000) reported that findings of one year work showed the importance
of professional learning communities in schools to improve was pervasive. From
the analysis of data, five core issues were found to be barriers for low-performing schools to improve. The issues were related to organizational
structures, focus work to improve learning, personal and social dynamics,
contextual influences, and leadership. Solutions to those issues were found
within creating professional learning communities in schools.
Organizational
Structures
The schools which lacked organizational structure resulted in
uncertainty among the staff, an atmosphere of confusion, ambiguous directions
and inappropriate processes, and no collaboration among the stakeholders. The
staff faced difficulty in finding time to come to gather for learning, problem-solving
and decision-making. The communication system within the organization was weak
and the organizational processes to smoothly run the school was lacking. There
was no connection found among the purpose, practices, and evaluation procedures.
On the other hand, as Hord (1997) explained the schools provide supportive conditions for the
staff to discuss their actions and engage in learning together.
Time is
provided for staff to meet regularly in groups to utilize it effectively by
engaging in constructive work and learning together realizing it as a critical
component to their success. Communication and organizational processes are channelized
within the organization by conveying information regarding events, decisions, and
other messages through weekly or daily bulletins. Morrissey (2000) concluded
that through providing supportive conditions which include the provision of time
and opportunities for collaboration, low-performing schools may be improved.
Focus
work to improve learning
The main purpose of a school is to ensure an established focus on
students learning. The schools which functioned below the expected level lacked
a focus on students’ learning because staff and small groups had no surety of
the purpose of the improvement work, reported by (Morrissey, 2000). Other
factors in that regard were the low level of teacher empowerment; little
interest among the teachers toward their ability and unwillingness to access
information; less motivation for identifying needs and appropriate solutions
and engage in self-study.
Inconsistent purposes, mixed messages, and
inappropriate implementation of instructional strategies prevailed in low-performing schools. The teachers were unaware of the usefulness of an examination
of students’ achievement data and had less participation in collaborative
problem-solving activities and low expectations regarding students’ potential.
The staff members did not keep themselves in contact with literature for updated
knowledge to apply in their own setting.
Schools must focus on improvement work through supportive and shared
leadership, shared values and vision, and collective learning and application of learning. Hargreaves
stated that in schools with a professional learning community infrastructure,
the values and vision are clearly established and articulated among staff.
Staff members are provided with a direction by the shared vision which provides a guideline for the staff to be engaged
in collective work.
Current literature is studied and discussed by the staff to identify best practices for their
school. Collective learning is an opportunity for professional staff to discuss
the needs of students and find ways
to address those needs. Shared
leadership, shared vision and values, collective learning, and application which
are dimensions of a professional learning community are a solution for the low-performing schools to bring change within the schools by focussing on
improvement work.
Personal
and Social Dynamics
Values such as trust, mutual respect, regard within relationships, and a sense of collectiveness among the staff and administrators are the indicators
of an effective school. Schools that do not perform well vary significantly in
personal and social dynamics. The staff members of SEDL found that low-performing schools had a culture of distrustful and unsupportive for staff
to keep openness and respect. Lack of established norms regarding trust, respect, and relationship prevailed in ineffective schools.
There were very few
opportunities either within the school or outside for staff to perform social
activities together, learn together, laugh together or just get to know each
other. Little or no work was done to acknowledge and value the differences in
culture, experiences, and expertise of staff brought to the school environment.
Limited interactions among the staff hindered opportunities for building trust
and collegial relationships.
The role of schools as professional learning communities is to provide a supportive condition which is a dimension addressing
the issues of trust, respect, and relationships among the staff. SEDL staff
suggested that ensuring supportive conditions in low-performing schools is to
facilitate the staff to value the individuals’ positive attitudes, trust, and
good relationships. Established norms that support the vision for the school
are discussed and maintained by all professional staff in a successful school.
Efforts are made to keep communications clear, respectful, and caring.
Shared Personal Practice is another dimension of schools that operate as
professional learning communities that develop openness, trust, and respect among
staff (Louis, 2008). If positive relationships are established among staff
members, then they freely share their teaching methods and strategies and the
best practices which are valued within the school community.
Contextual
Influences
A school is an open system that means surrounding entities or factors
affect the internal environment of a school system. Print (1993) explained that
internal factors include
maintenance of the physical plant, relationships among students and staff,
issues of culture, individual differences, and low expectations for staff as
learners. External contextual
factors include opposing media, concerned board members, disputes
within the community, staff’s uneasiness in working with parents and community
members, relationships with district-level education departments regarding
policies, communication of policies, adoptions, and directives that have
significant impact on the operation of schools.
Low-performing schools were
found to be deeply affected in terms of progress in improving school by each
set of contextual factors during the first work of the SEDL project. It was also
found that low performing schools may be improved by addressing the influences
of the contextual factors and transforming those schools into professional
learning communities. Bolam et al.
(2005) suggested the dimensions of schools as a professional learning community
namely, shared vision and values
and supportive conditions, are
the solutions for schools to deal with various contextual influences. Shared
vision ensures and sustains a supportive environment for learning by enhanced
relationships among students and teachers as well as high expectations for all.
Leadership
The leadership capacity of the principals is crucial for school
improvement which significantly impacts and influences an organizational
structure, a focus of improvement work, personal and social dynamics,
contextual influences, and leadership. Morrissey (2000) reported that in the
absence of a focus of improvement, administrators faced difficulty in
developing and communicating a collective vision in low-performing schools.
Administrators lacked clarity to model the vision through actions of the
stakeholders such as staff, students, parents, and community.
They expected the
staff on the basis of their personal experiences, historical norms, and
relationships to better achieve the goals of the school. Teachers were involved
less in long-term planning for improvement and depended on unilateral decisions
made by administrators. An inappropriate situation created an inappropriate
organizational system where planning for improvement efforts, collective
meetings, and daily activities of the school was lacking.
Schools as professional learning communities
through supportive conditions and shared leadership perform well above the expected level where the teachers use common
vision and goals as guiding principles to improve the situation. Supportive
conditions encourage the staff to share their best practices and challenges to
seek solutions. Hord (1997) asserts that administrators can operate well the
school activities using shared values
and vision with the participation of their professional teaching
staff. Expectations are kept high for all the staff and students and the
principals model those expectations daily in words and actions.
Decision-making
structures are developed and implemented by the principals to involve teachers
in decision-making responsibilities. The administrators have the responsibility
for providing supportive conditions
within their schools which is another dimension of professional
learning communities. For providing effective physical conditions in schools
the principals need to design efficient systems for operation, communication, and learning. The actions of principals play an important role in creating such
conditions where collective learning and the application of learning and
sharing personal practices occur within the school.
Low
performing schools may be improved through improving the capacities of teachers
for teaching and learning by providing opportunities of developing their
professional knowledge and skills. Research conducted by Lee, Smith and
Croninger ( as cited in Morrissey, 2000) revealed that low-performing schools
can overcome the implementation problems
of improvements efforts by bringing changes in school operations and increasing
students’ achievement when the
staff and school are organized as a professional learning community.
Conclusion
Transforming schools into professional learning communities is an
interesting and challenging task for the staff members. It is important to make
a paradigm shift from schools with a bureaucratic environment to schools with a
democratic environment. The readiness of staff members needs to be analyzed as
the first step in the process of transforming schools into professional
learning communities (Morrissey, 2000).
Developing motivation among the staff members needs an effective and
inspirational school principal whose leadership determines the effectiveness of
the school.
A professional learning community in schools is ensured when coordination
is formed between and among the administrators, principals, teachers,
educators, support staff, and students through clearly communicating the vision
of the school. Also, the actions need to be modeled by the staff members to develop
among students the values desired by the school. Low-performing schools will be
improved only when there is a strong commitment among the staff members as well
as administrators and principals to address the challenges of the school and
removing barriers for improvement. Literature suggests some ways to transform a
classroom into a learning community which will be discussed in the next
chapter.
Chapter
04: Classrooms as learning communities
Introduction
A classroom is a social setting where the learning
process takes place through interaction between teachers and students,
students and students. When this process is taking place in a collaborative
manner, then the classroom is known as a learning community. This chapter
discusses some aspects of a classroom as a learning community. Tendencies that
students demonstrate in a learning community classroom are discussed in the
early sections of this chapter discussing the dimensions of a classroom
involving classroom properties, processes, and structures. Later sections of the
chapter include a detailed discussion of strategies to motivate students and
build learning communities in a classroom.
Tendencies
of students in a classroom learning community
A classroom learning community influences students to engage in learning
activities and raise their achievements. It determines how a class will evolve
from a collection of individuals into a cohesive group characterized by high
expectations, caring relationships, and productive inquiry. As elaborated by
Arends (2004) creating a community in a classroom is a process of doing many
things in the right way by the group members. Teachers take a step with the courage
to develop an environment for students where knowledge is generated, concerns
are shared and problems are collectively solved. Students get motivated when
they explore relationships among the members and develop a sense of collective
identity as a group. Following are some of the tendencies of students in
classrooms where a learning community is established.
Identify
common needs and purposes
The transformation of a group of students into a
community is not possible without a sense of common goals and a vision.
Students in a classroom need to discover the commonalities and differences to
know themselves and understand others. A tendency to see to the connection
between an individual’s own needs and the group goals exemplifies a community
(Putnam & Burke 1992). The discovery that achievements, challenges, joys, and worries are common to all the members of a classroom encourages group
bonding. Students find an identity that leads to the generation of individual
and group purposes.
Creating a community of students is not only for
improving their behaviors but creating a situation where bonds are developed
among learners and teachers. A classroom is known as a democratic community
(Sergiovanni, 1994) is aimed at creating the kinds of ties that compel students
and teachers to share needs and purposes. Shared responsibility for
developing norms and a commitment to these norms create a sense of
belongingness among the members of a democratic classroom.
Seeing
peers as colleagues
Another tendency of students involves perceiving
others as a rich source of experiences, skills, and knowledge that harmonize
their own capacities. Putnam and Burke (1992) declared Students in a classroom
are collaborators and they increase each other’s academic potentials. Peers are
perceived as partners on a joint activity of learning and the talents of all
the members are used as a common pool of skills from which each individual
member can benefit. Collaborative
strategies in classrooms provide significant insights to the students to
interpret and make a sense of the matter to be learned. Research conducted by
Tinto (1997) explored how participation in a collaborative or shared learning
group enables students to develop a network of support.
A small supportive community of peers is
formed that helps to bond students to engage in the academic and social
activities in a classroom. Groups that formed within the classroom are often
extended beyond it in informal meetings and study groups. Collaborative
learning settings enable new students to bridge academic and social divides
faced in collective sites. The students meet both social and academic needs
without surrendering one in order to meet the needs of the other. The
classrooms serve as the academic and social settings out of which fruitful
educational activities are planned by the teachers.
Seeking
self actualisation and group actualisation
Teachers in a classroom encourage students to
willingly accept challenging tasks and expand their capacities while most students use resources of the class in
combined exercises. Problems are solved and knowledge is shared to find
satisfaction in a classroom learning community. A sense of adventure and a
taste for development bring satisfaction of achievement. Teachers as lifelong
learners communicate an enthusiasm for the struggle of learning. Oakes and
Lipton (2003) claimed that students with high achievement motivation feel
competent and expect further valuable successes so they spend more time and
effort on learning.
Reflecting
on past actions
Students’ reflections of past events determine the
effectiveness of a classroom community. A reflective tendency involves observing,
thinking, and discussing the past. The
term dialogue is sometimes used as a synonym for reflection, Burbules (as cited
in Buzzelli & L’Esperance, 2000) argued that dialogue is not a basic way of
posing questions and responding but a social relation that involves agreements
and disagreements, failures, and success on events. Self-argument occurs in
shared reflection which publically identifies gaps between intention and
effect. Kohn (as cited in Oakes & Lipton, 2003) described the way students
reflect in a classroom claiming that the discrepancy between thought on what
would happen and what actually happened is identified and acknowledged.
In an
atmosphere where sharing reflections is the norm, the members are not afraid of
failure because events can be shared. Risks are taken in a reflective culture
because social norms support experimentation and trying out new ideas. On
the basis of past errors, new events are planned and tested in a classroom as a group but children need to learn how to reflect on their actions. Group
reflection influences students to view events as external circumstances to be
examined for understanding and not as an internal character flaw to be
evaluated and blamed.
Helping
and being helped
Learning communities invite members to value helping
each other while emphasizing there is no shame in being helped. The need for help is
not considered as a weakness but as a humane activity. In an atmosphere of
cooperative learning according to Putnam and Burke (1992), a person who gets
help is not considered to be of lower status but the act is considered as an
expression of a temporary need in a given situation.
Celebrating
accomplishments
A community remembers significant events from the past
and members enjoy talking of individual and collective successes and failures.
To enjoy remembering a failure is so basic that it can be used as a test for an
indisputable community. Celebration is an inclination among students to collect
symbols of past successes and sufferings. Celebrating achievements is an
attribute of effective learning schools stated by Longworth and Davies (1996)
where celebrations are arranged through learning events, festivals, and parties.
A classroom that empowers group identity by planned activities of celebrations
is said to be well on the way to success through developing a historical memory
on the basis of past events. Students feel a deep sense of identity and their
destiny of schooling. From a psychological perspective celebrating
accomplishments is to reinforce students’ good behaviors in classrooms.
Woolfolk (2007) suggested to teachers that one way of reinforcing students’
learning is to recognize genuine accomplishments by giving rewards for
attainments of specified goals and giving values to achievements.
Dimensions
of a classroom as a learning community
Classrooms are busy places where students participate
in various activities to develop their academic and social capacities. Arends
(2004) described that a variety of activities namely instruction,
socialization, conflict management, evaluative activities, and appropriate
adjustment procedures to unexpected events are performed at the same time by
individual and groups in a classroom setting. Three dimensions of a classroom;
properties, processes, and structures are important to understand to build a
learning community.
Classroom
properties
An ecological perspective is a way to study classrooms
where the students and teachers interact with each other for the purpose of
completing meaningful activities and tasks. Classrooms have six properties
which make them a complex and demanding system (Doyle as cited in Arends,
2004). Each property is described below.
Multidimensionality
Individuals with different backgrounds, interests, and
abilities join in a classroom community therefore a large number of diverse
activities need to be planned and arranged for the learning needs (Oakes &
Lipton, 2003). Arends describes the classroom as a place where teachers explain
things, give directions, manage conflicts, assign tasks and keep records while
the students read, write, engage in discussions, solve problems, form
friendships and experience conflicts. To create a learning community in the
classroom a teacher needs to learn how to undertake well planned
multidimensional activities.
Simultaneity
While conducting an activity a teacher needs to
monitor other actions performed by the students in order to handle
interruptions and keep track of time. Woolfolk (2007) emphasized that teachers
need to observe and note the ways in which students interact in large and small
groups during activities. Teachers have to be multitasked so that while Arends
(2004) explaining ideas clearly, they are watching for signs of less motivation
and reluctance among the students. During discussions, teachers need to pay their
attention carefully to the students’ responses, observe other students for
comprehension and think of another question to be asked. Each situation represents
a basic feature of a classroom that creates simultaneous occurrences of events
that need to be addressed effectively learning.
Immediacy
The third important property of a classroom is the
sudden occurrences of events and their immediate impact on the behaviors of
teachers as well as students. Teachers continuously interact with the students through
praise, reprimand, explain and challenge while students also draw parallels in
reactions with the teachers and other students (Arends, 2004). Pencils are
dropped, irrelevant comments are passed and conflicts are resolved. Many of
these events are unplanned and their immediacy provides a very short time for
the teachers to reflect in action. To deal with immediate occurrences of events
in classrooms teachers need to be able to make quick decisions to involve
students in academic activities.
Unpredictability
Events in a classroom require not only immediate
attention but may turn the whole situation through unpredictable and
unexpected results. Sudden illness, announcements, and unplanned visits in
classrooms are common. Putnam and Burke (1992) discussed that interruptions are
happening frequently which affect the activities or whole lessons unpredictably
at any time. Effective teachers make a list of such intruders and find
solutions for dealing with unpredictable events to lessen disturbing effects.
Publicity
In many work settings, individuals work in privacy or
in a small group of people while a classroom is an open place where almost all
events are observed by the students. Arends (2004) shared the opinion; a lack
of privacy is prevailing in a classroom where the students observe each other’
actions with interest as well as the teachers also continuously examine
students’ behaviors. Any event in a classroom is difficult whether it is a
score of a test or a whisper to a neighbor to be unnoticed therefore publicity
demands accuracy in performing tasks. Ineffective classrooms, teachers use
strategies where students can not judge whether something has happened wrong or
right with any of the students.
Formation
of a history
Learning communities are gradually formed where the
students share a common history through regular meetings in classrooms to
accumulate a common set of experiences, norms, and routines. Students meet five
days a week for months wherein early meetings shape the activities for
the whole year. Oakes and Lipton (2003) asserted that each classroom develops
its own norms, structures, and roles using internal procedures, patterns of
interactions, and limits which are varying from class to class. In spite of
variance from day-to-day activities, there is certain constancy in each class
that emerges from its history.
Processes
in a classroom
Interpersonal and group processes help the
students to deal with problems related to classroom culture are important for a
learning community to be formed. Schmuck and Schmuck (as cited in Arends, 2004)
identified six processes that are important ingredients of a classroom
community and are interrelated to each other. Teachers need to develop
important interpersonal and group process skills among the students and help
they function as a group.
Expectations
In classrooms, the students have high expectations for
the group as well as for themselves. These expectations become patterns of
behaviors demonstrated over time and can influence classroom climate and the learning process. Discussing expectancy-value theories of motivation for
learning Woolfolk (2007) stated that motivation among students to perform a
task is perceived as the product of expectations of reaching a goal and the
value of that goal for them.
Leadership
The power and influences exerted in classrooms and
their impacts on interactions and interrelations of the group are aspects of
leadership. During a qualitative study of the collaborative leadership paradigm
in a school, Amatea and Behar-Horenstein (2004) found that shared leadership
creates a cooperative environment that is free of conflicts and tensions among
the members of a group. Leadership is an interpersonal process rather than a
characteristic of a person that can be used in classrooms to enhance the culture of
learning and caring which encourages good behaviors among the students.
Attraction
The students in a classroom have interpersonal skills
and relationships to draw the attention of others. According to Shor (as cited in
Oakes & Lipton, 2003), “In a caring and democratic classroom students apply
their communication skills well where they can speak passionately about themes
that are important to them. Their speech is rich and colorful when they let
teachers hear their authentic voices which display lovely imaginations,
interesting thoughts, deep feelings and humor” (p. 297). Teachers help the students to create such a
situation where all the members of peer groups are involved in exploring their
interpersonal skills and relationships in a friendship structure.
Norms
Shared expectations of students and teachers for
classroom behavior are known as norms. Democratic norms of cooperation,
support, and community play an important role in collaborative learning groups
where the students are required to work well on assigned tasks (Oakes and
Lipton, 2003). The norms in classrooms are significant to foster students’
collective engagement in performing academic tasks and to encourage
interpersonal relationships among them.
Communication
Interaction is mostly characterized by verbal and
non-verbal communication. Open and lively communications are preferred in
classrooms that entail a high degree of students involvement. Putnam and
Burke (1992) discussed how quick mastery by students of routines of a class
provides a chance for teachers to have more communication on substantive issues
with the students. Routines of a class need to be designed which support a
cooperative culture involving routines for students to help each other, work in
groups, maintaining the physical environment, taking responsibility, and
celebrating their accomplishments.
Cohesiveness
Feelings and commitments that students and teachers
possess within a classroom group as a whole are one of the important classroom
processes. Oakes and Lipton (2003) claimed that group cohesiveness supports
academic work and members’ well-being in a group as a community. Sharing norms,
assigning roles and responsibilities in a turn-by-turn pattern may develop
cohesiveness among the students of a classroom.
Classroom
structures
Structures that shape classrooms and demand particular
lessons involve patterns of activities and tasks that students are asked to
perform. The lessons and activities may
vary in three major ways: structures of learning task, structures for
participation and goals, and reward structures (Arends, 2004). In the following
sections, three structures are described in detail.
Task
structures
The types of work that students accomplish in a
classroom are determined by academic and social tasks and activities planned by
the teachers. Tasks need to be completed in relation to the expectations of the
teachers for the students to meet cognitive and social demands. Students
necessarily need to complete their tasks including the content covered and
exercise of required mental operations as emphasized by (Woolfolk, 2007).
Classroom activities include participating in a conversation, working with
other students in small groups, taking notes during lectures, and solving
problems.
Students’ learning is determined by the tasks and activities they
perform. Structures of tasks vary with respect to the strategy that a
particular model of teaching requires. Arends added that some learning tasks
emerge from learning activities. For example, during a discussion session, any
question may be posed which needs to be answered by an activity. Sometimes
different task demands exist in particular academic subjects. The significant insights are that in a
classroom structure of tasks influence the behaviors of teachers and students
and determine the degree of cooperation and involvement of the students.
Goal
and reward structures
Another type of classroom structure is the way goals
and rewards are shaped. Goals specify the type of interdependence or relationships
required by students while completing a learning task. Johnson and Johnson (as
cited in Woolfolk, 2007) identified three types of goal structures. Cooperative
goal structures are found when students perceive that they can achieve the
goals if all the students in an effort also achieve their goals. Competitive
goal structures are known when they recognize that they can achieve their goal
if others do not reach the goal.
Individualistic goal structures exist when
they see that their achievement of a goal is irrelevant to the goal which
others achieve. Rewards are also characterized as competitive, cooperative, and
individualistic. Beghetto (2006) presented the point of view that goal and
reward structures influence the behaviors of the students with the purpose of
mastering the task, learning, and developing a deep level of understanding.
Participation
structures
The way students take part in lessons by asking
questions and responding to a teacher’s queries influence teaching and learning
process in a classroom. Taking the ideas of Piaget and Vygotsky about cognitive
development Oakes and Lipton (2003) stated as learning is a social process in
which children learn with adults or in collaboration through participating in
activities within the environment.
Structures vary from lesson to lesson.
In lectures, students mostly act
as passive recipients and busy taking notes. In small groups learning
activities require a different type of participation from the students
(Beghetto, 2006). During discussions and debates planned in a lesson, students
take part more with enthusiasm while arguing and answering questions. The
teachers need to plan such activities in classrooms where the students’
participation is encouraged for meaningful learning.
Strategies
for motivating students and building learning communities
One of the major goals of teaching is to motivate
students to engage in meaningful learning activities and build productive
learning communities in classrooms. Strategies to motivate students effectively
work when they help a group of individuals develop into a cohesive learning
group stated by (Arends, 2004). Effective teachers incorporate strategies
interdependently to enable the motivation to be a stable aspect of their
classrooms where students’ psychological, academic and social needs are met. A
classroom is said to be motivating when the students find learning activities
meaningful and interesting and they see the surety of their success. Strategies
to create a classroom as more motivating and fit for meaningful learning are
discussed in the following sections.
Believe in
students’ capabilities and attend to alterable factors
Students take many things with them to school such as
basic personality characteristics, varying styles of doing things, and early
childhood experiences. Effective teachers enhance students’ motivation by
concentrating efforts on factors that are under their ability to control and
influence. Teachers’ own behaviors and beliefs towards students particularly,
those who come from diverse backgrounds and cultures, also influence students’
abilities. Arends (2004) stated that social factors namely backgrounds and
parent expectations and psychological factors namely well-being, anxieties and
dependencies influence students’ performance in a classroom. Believing that
every child learns and perceives the world according to his/her own style may
lessen the complexity of raising engagement and achievement levels among
students.
Avoid
overemphasizing extrinsic motivation
Reinforcement is a process during which the degree of
desired behaviors among learners is increased. Explaining operant
conditioning, a behavioral theory of learning Woolfolk (2003) discussed that
extrinsic reinforcers in form of good grades, praise, and prizes are used by
teachers to strengthen students’ desired behaviors in a classroom. The punishment which suppresses a behavior is used to avoid undesired events occur again and
again during the teaching and learning process.
Teachers need to analyze the situation (Print, 1993) before providing
extrinsic rewards. Sometimes the students are intrinsically motivated to do a
task that time there is no need to provide extrinsic rewards. Many students do
not care about grades in schools so providing them grades will be meaningless.
Extrinsic rewards are used cautiously by effective teachers and use other means
of motivating students to create an effective classroom learning environment.
Create
learning situations with positive feeling tones
Learning orientation and tone are crucial elements of
a classroom climate. Pleasant, safe, and secure classroom communities according
to humanistic theories of motivation are important for students’ motivation and
addressing their needs in which students have a degree of self-determination and
responsibility for learning (Woolfolk, 2007). Students’ responses to learning
situations, as shared by Arends (2004), are highly influenced by the attitudes
and tones of teachers. Tones are of three types known as positive, negative, and
neutral feeling tones. Students tend to make more efforts in situations with
positive feeling tones and less in situations with negative tones. Feeling
tones in a classroom is not only the result of specific things teachers say
at a particular moment but they also are the result of many other structures
and processes created by teachers to produce productive learning
communities.
Build
on students’ interests and intrinsic values
Students’ intrinsic motivation and their interests and
curiosity play a significant role in providing productive learning experiences
for learners. a teacher can use a number of techniques to relate learning
materials and activities to students’ interests. Woolfolk (2007) suggested
teachers make interesting lessons by relating to daily life activities,
using the names of students, and making materials attractive and artistic. Another
way of making lessons interesting is to employ games, puzzles, and other
activities which create motivation among students to participate.
Field trips,
simulations, music, guest speaker and a variety of teaching methods namely
discussions, small group work, inquiry, and projects can also attract students’
attention to classroom work. It is important to keep in mind that stressing new
or attractive materials sometimes distracts students from learning a topic.
Sometimes new interests are formed through learning a new topic. Teachers need
to be careful in providing materials that are new and related to students’
interests.
Structure
learning to accomplish flow
Teachers structure learning activities emphasizing
intrinsic values to increase students’ involvement and flow of experiences. The flow of experiences requires the challenge of a particular learning activity
corresponds to the level of learners’ skills. Clear and explicit goals through
extended engagement and involvement of students in tasks also produce a flow of
learning experiences (Beghetto, 2006). Relevant and meaningful feedback
regarding the conduction of activities is also important for producing a flow
of experiences.
Arends (2004) stated that establishing a flow is not easy in
classrooms that are culturally diverse as identified by. Learning activities
that appear to be interesting and challenging in a certain situation may give
little meaning to students with different cultures and experiences. Making
meaningful connections with students may prevent teachers’ frustrations due to
a lack of students’ engagement in tasks and students’ dissatisfaction regarding
attention to their needs.
Use feedback and do not excuse results failures
Feedback on a good performance enhances intrinsic
motivation and on poor performance provides information concerning what needs
to be improved. Specific, immediate, and non-judgmental feedback is said to be
effective. Woolfolk (2007) stated that internal attributions such as efforts or
lack of efforts, willingness, and commitment need to be focussed on rather than external
attributions such as luck, shortage of time, and a lack of resources while
providing feedback. It should enable the students to realize that what they did
not do rather than what they can not do.
Putnam and Burke (1992) added that
some teachers do not want to embarrass students by drawing attention to
incorrect performance as it is easier to accept excuses for failures than of dealing with them with the fact of failure. These actions are often practiced by teachers.
Effective teachers have high expectations for all students and if anything goes
wrong, it is brought to the attention of students and provided feedback to do
correctly.
Attend
to students needs
Individuals work for achievement, belonging to a group
of colleagues, and satisfy needs for choice and self-determination.
Achievements, belonging, and choices are such motives that play an important
role in determining students’ efforts in learning activities and their
persistence (Arends, 2004). Students satisfy their needs for self-determination
and influence when they get a chance to say something or have some authority in
a classroom during learning tasks. Teachers can provide choices and a sense of
determination by: holding weekly planning sessions with students and include
their views about activities performed.
And those that will be performed next;
assigning students important tasks to be performed and using cooperative learning
and problem-based learning strategies. Woolfolk (2007) while discussing
humanistic theories of motivation stated that needs of belonging are important
to be satisfied in groups. Arrangements may be done using some procedures where
students increase their affiliation with other colleagues. Procedures may be:
making sure all students know each other’s names in a class; initiate
cooperative goal and reward structures; take time to help students develop as a
group.
Attend
to the structure of goals and difficulty of instructional tasks
The ways learning goals and tasks are structured and
performed are important for developing an effective classroom. Two aspects of
structures important to be focussed on: goal structures and task difficulty given
by (Arends, 2004). Competitive goal structures create situations where students
compare themselves with others while cooperative goal structures lead to interdependency and shared activities for success. A close connection is found
between the ways goals are structured and the difficulty level of goals that
students choose. High goals which are unachievable set by students may be
changed into realistic goals while low goals may be raised to an appropriate
level. Teachers need to keep in mind that students will be motivated to be consistent
for a longer period with realistic goals.
Another factor that influences
students’ motivation is the degree of difficulty of a learning task and the
magnitude of effort required to complete it. Too easy tasks require a little
amount of effort and produce no motivation while too difficult tasks are also
not motivational requiring a very high degree of effort. Vygotsky (as cited in Woolfolk,
2007) in his social cognitive development theory found that students take
interest in tasks that are within their zone of proximal development. Tasks
should neither be too easy nor too difficult for students to accomplish.
Effective teachers adjust learning tasks according to the level of difficulty
with respect to students’ abilities. Special challenges need to be provided to
fast learners while more support and assistance need to be provided to slow
learners in a classroom.
Use
multidimensional tasks
The academic needs of students with diverse backgrounds in
a classroom are addressed by providing multidimensional tasks. Teachers plan
their teaching for a diverse group by offering learning opportunities. In such
opportunities, students can take part in activities together as a community and
practice tasks that are challenging and motivating. Cohen (as cited in Arends,
2004) “Tasks known as multidimensional are: intrinsically interesting,
rewarding and challenging; include more than one answer to solve a problem;
allow different students to make different contributions; involve various
mediums to engage the senses of sight, hearing and touch; require a variety of
skills and behaviors and requiring reading and writing” (p. 164). The multidimensional technique emphasizes work to be done collectively on interesting tasks and
problems where students contribute with respect to their own backgrounds,
abilities, and interests.
Facilitate group
development and cohesion
Developing a productive classroom environment ensures
students’ enhanced motivation for learning and maximizing achievements. For
that purpose, teachers need to pay attention to the social and academic needs of
students and encourage them to grow as a group. Putnam and Burke (1992); Shmuck
and Schmuck (as cited in Arends, 2004) found that classroom groups develop in similar
patterns in five stages.
Stage
1: Inclusion and membership
Early
in classroom life, students seek a place for themselves in the peer group.
Students want to present a good image and are on their good behavior. Teachers
have great influence during this period because of their assigned authority.
Stage 2: Rules and routines
Members are very concerned about what is expected of
them. Students want to understand the way the class will operate and the rules
that will govern their behavior.
Stage
3: Influence and collaboration
Members of a class enter into two types of power
struggles. One tests the authority of the teacher and the other establishes the
peer group pecking order. If tensions can not be resolved and power
relationships balanced, the group can not move along productively to the next
stage.
Stage
4: Individual and academic achievement
The classroom enters a stage of development for
working productively on academic goals. Students during this stage can set and
accomplish goals and work together on tasks. The classroom can also be pulled
back into earlier stages during this stage.
Stage
5: Self-renewal/ transition/closure
At this stage, members can think about their continuous
growth and about taking on new and more challenging tasks. This is also a stage
that can produce conflict because the change in tasks will perhaps upset earlier
resolutions around membership.
Conclusion
Building communities in classrooms is not an easy task
and it requires teachers to have a deep understanding of psychological,
sociological, and philosophical influences on the learning process. This also
requires the willpower of the teachers to provide such an environment where
learners will develop their personalities through participating in classroom
activities. A classroom is a real learning community when all the students meet
their academic, social, and psychological needs. A teacher needs to analyze and
understand the processes, structures, and properties of a classroom.
Before going to
transform it into a learning community. As some aspects of the teaching and learning
process namely students’ interests, motivation, needs of belonging, safe and
secure environment compel teachers to implement a humanistic approach to
motivation in an effective learning classroom. Building learning communities in
classrooms are possible when there is a professional learning community of
educators working for education and when a school functions as a learning
community.
Chapter 5: Conclusion
A learning process takes place in a social setting
through interactions among the participants. Inquiry is one of the important
strategies to generate meaningful learning in where the learners
collaboratively apply their learning to solve problems related to addressing
the learning needs within a group.
Smith, Ewing, and Cornu (2003) discussed that people interpret and
organize their experiences to make a sense of the world and help others to do the same. The term used in the early sections of this study for organized groups of
people who generate learning.
The members of a learning community need to have a
shared vision and values, shared leadership, and mutual trust. Educators,
principals, teachers, and parents have significant roles to play in creating an
environment in educational institutions where students are provided with
opportunities to collaborate for shared discovery and learning. To conclude
this study the following themes have been chosen.
· Maximizing
learning through collaboration
· Learning is a process of how to learn
· Dynamic schools may ensure desired outcomes
· Bringing a change in schools
· Learners in classrooms
· Learning is a process of how to learn
· Dynamic schools may ensure desired outcomes
· Bringing a change in schools
· Learners in classrooms
Maximizing
learning through collaborative efforts
Learning communities function around common goals
which are set by the members for themselves and it is the responsibility of
each member to contribute in collective efforts to achieve the shared goals of
a group. When a group of educators comes together for the purpose of maximizing
their professional learning then it becomes a professional learning community.
A need to come together is felt by educators when they find challenges in their
effort to educate others. While solving problems collectively they set common
goals to improve their learning as well as helping others to learn.
This needs
a tie among the educators to share their experiences and practices. Hargreaves
(2003) shared that a group of professionals bring together different knowledge,
skills, and values which help the group in promoting learning and problem-solving.
A community of professional learners is said to be an effective group when
there are certain characteristics demonstrated by the participants as a whole.
A community of learners is characterized as effective
due to shared leadership, a common vision and goals, collaborative teamwork,
collective actions, and experimentations, and continuous struggle for improvement. A shared leadership involves a common
understanding among the members, Hord (1997) was of the opinion that all the
participants are responsible to solve problems, take initiatives and make
decisions for individual and collective learning. A common vision and goals
direct the member to take part in the collaborative efforts of the group.
In the
context of a learning group of professionals in education, particular teams are
organized to perform particular tasks which function interdependently to achieve the
common goals of the group. To improve learning about how to effectively provide
services relevant to the teaching and learning process, group members engage
themselves in collective actions and experimentations. When learning is
generated in a group through shared discovery and problem-solving, members get
motivated to learn more leading to a continuous effort for further learning.
Learning
is a process of how to learn
Learners in teams involve themselves in an inquiry
process to make the sense of what they experience during interactions within
their environment. Inquiry is an ongoing process during which the members of the team apply prior knowledge, skills, and abilities to extend their understanding.
Morrissey, (2000) suggested that the involvement of participants in inquiry brings
about changes in practices and seeking the consequences in a situation.
Learning is a cyclical process that motivates a person to change his/her
practices and changing practices leads to further learning to be taken place. There
is a mutual relationship between learning and changing practices.
Members of a
group value their involvement in learning opportunities during inquiry. To
develop such groups the members need to create supportive conditions, share
leadership, and encourage collective learning among them. The sustainability of such
groups depends upon the time given to members to perform tasks, deal with
dilemmas, and address problems for meeting needs of collective learning. Louise (2008) stated members need to be able
to solve problems related to assigned tasks. Collaborative teams need to be
cohesive while planning for change and stability when team members are
possessing diverse experiences and skills.
Dynamic
schools may ensure desired outcomes
For a dynamic professional community of a school the
practice of three major processes namely planning, execution, and evaluation is
important. Effective planning and
executing need a shared leadership that develops a vision and shared goals
which the principal, teachers, support staff, and other members use as a
guideline to achieve common goals through cooperative actions. Evaluation involves decision-making on the
actions performed by the staff members within the school. In the framework of
shared leadership.
Each staff member is responsible to create an environment
where problems are solved, alternative solutions are identified and all act as
learners. School’s focus is on students’ learning as a common goal as Haberman
(2004) asserted that effective school communities have one of the common attributes,
a common vision that makes the climate of learning the highest priority. The
principal encourages positive relationships among the teachers, administrative
staff, and parents. It is believed that students are capable of learning. Shared
values and purposes bind the staff members all together.
Teachers
and other staff possess a set of diverse skills, knowledge, interests, and
abilities, when such potentials are used collaboratively, new and innovative
patterns of teaching and learning are devised. Miller (2000) stated that the
diversity of patterns and ideas relevant to learning encourages openness to
experimentation, innovation, and flexibility in the teaching and learning
process. A collaborative culture that includes mutual trust, respect, and norms
among the staff is required to perform collaborative actions.
The teachers may
discuss issues, show disagreements, share successes and failures freely to
maximize the chances to achieve common goals. Shared vision and goals,
collaborative work, creative actions, and mutual understanding among the staff
of a school produce desired results. An
improvement in students’ learning, a supportive culture, authentic assessment
procedures, enhanced capacities of staff, and increased interactions between
teachers and students are areas that need to be created in dynamic schools.
Bringing
a change in schools
Addressing issues in schools is a
process of bringing positive change into it. Certain issues may act as barriers
and resisting change by staff members can become the cause of low performances
of schools. As discussed in chapter three the core issues of low performing
schools are: a lack of organizational structure; poor attention to students’
learning; a culture of distrust; irrelevant influences of contextual factors;
and a lack of leadership. Through providing
supportive conditions that involve the provision of time, effective channels of communication, and
opportunities for collaboration, organisational structures may be improved. The
issue of students’ learning may be addressed through: supportive and shared
leadership; shared vision and values; and collective learning and application in low-performing schools.
Hargreaves (2003) stated that ineffective schools, their infrastructure, values , and vision are clearly established and articulated among staff. Ensuring supportive conditions and sharing personal
practices are solutions to the issues of trust and relationships among
the staff. Louis, (2008) asserted that shared personal practices develop sincerity,
trust, and respect among staff in schools. If positive relationships are
established among staff members, then they freely share their teaching methods
and strategies which are valued within the school community. Shared vision and values and supportive environment are the
solutions to deal with various contextual influences. Shared leadership is an
important aspect of a school that influences all issues related to effective
performance. Decisions are made by involving all the staff members in
achieving goals in shared leadership.
Learners
in classrooms
Three aspects of a classroom namely properties,
processes, and structures are important to understand for teachers to provide
effective learning. A teacher needs to learn how to frame learning
opportunities, how to structure tasks, and develop effective processes.
Properties of multidimensionality, simultaneity, unpredictability, publicity, and formation of history are found in a classroom. Processes include
expectation, leadership, attraction, norms, and cohesiveness. Finally,
structures include task structure, goal and reward structure, and participation
structure. It is important for teachers to learn to create a balance between
properties, processes, and structures. Building a community of learners in a
classroom academic, psychological and social needs is important to be
addressed by the teachers.
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