Reliability Of a Test

The characteristic of a test about the consistency with which a test yields the same result in measuring whatever it does measure is called reliability (Swain et al, 2000).

Taiwo (1995) defines reliability as it refers to the consistency of measurement that is how consistent test scores are from one measurement to another. For example, the students use a stopwatch to measure time for 15 vibrations of a pendulum. They take the reading twice or thrice. If two or three times the reading is consistent then they proceed with it further. It means that the stopwatch provides reliable readings.

Nature of reliability

Reliability refers to the consistency of the results obtained with a test but not the test itself. It means that the results obtained by a tool or test are reliable not the tool or test is said to be reliable.  It refers to a particular interpretation of test scores. For example, a test score that is reliable over a period of time may not be reliable from one test to another equivalent test. Reliability is a statistical concept. To determine the consistency, a test is administered once or more than once. Then the consistency is measured in terms of relative shifts. It is necessary but not a sufficient condition for validity ( Linn & Gronlund, 2000).

Functions of reliability

The reliability coefficient provides the most revealing statistical index of quality that is ordinarily available. Estimates of the reliability of tests provide essential information for judging the technical quality and motivating efforts to improve the tests. Reliability estimation determines how much of the variability in test scores is due to measurement error and how much is due to variability in true scores (Swain et al, 2000).

Methods of determining the reliability

Test-Retest Reliability

The test is administered twice on the same group to assess the consistency of test scores over a period of time. The two tests are similar but not the same. Then the correlation between two sets of scores obtained by test and retest is found using Pearson product-moment “r”. Test-retest reliability is best used for things that are stable over time, for example, intelligence. Generally, reliability will be higher when little time has passed between two tests (Kubiszyne & Borich, 2003).

Equivalent /Parallel-Forms method

In the parallel-forms method of determining reliability, the reliability is estimated by comparing two different tests that were created using the same content, difficulty, format, and length at the same test. The two tests are administered to the same group within a short interval of time. Then the test scores of two tests are correlated. This correlation provides an index of equivalence. For example, in intermediate or secondary board examinations, two questions paper for a particular subject are constructed and named as paper A or paper B, and sometimes paper C is prepared which show equivalent forms tests ( Linn & Gronlund, 2000).

Internal Consistency method

The consistency of test results across items on the same test is determined in this method of determining the reliability of a test. Test items are compared with each other that measure the same construct to determine the test’s internal consistency. Questions are similar and designed to measure the same thing, the test taker should answer the same for both questions, which would indicate that the test has internal consistency(Swain et al, 2000). Three methods to find the internal consistency of a test known as split-half method and Kuder Richardson 21 formula and inter-rater internal consistency are given below.

Split-half method

Linn and Gronlund (2000) share that the split-half method of determining internal consistency employs single administration of an even-number test on a sample of pupils. The test is divided into two equivalent halves and a correlation for these half test scores is found. The test is divided into even-numbered items such as 2,4,6…, in one half and odd numbers such as1,3,5,…., in another half. Then the scores of both the halves are correlated by using the spearman brown formula. The formula is given below.

r₂    = 2 r₂/1₊ r₁

                                        Where            r_{2 =} reliability coefficient on the full test

                                      r₁₌ correlation of coefficient between half tests

Kuder-Richardson formula 21 method

Linn & Gronlund (2003), states that it is another method of determining reliability using single administration of a test. It is known to provide a conservative estimate of the split-half type of reliability. The procedure is based on the consistency of an individual’s performance from item to item and on the standard deviation of the test such that the reliability coefficient obtained denotes the internal consistency of the test. Internal consistency here means the degree to which the items of a test measure a common attribute of the testee.  

Inter-rater Reliability

In this method, two or more independent judges score the test. The scores are then compared to determine the consistency of the raters’ estimates. One way to test inter-rater reliability is to assign each rater score each test. For example, each rater might score items on a scale from 1 to 10. Then the correlation between the two ratings is found to determine the level of inter-rater reliability. Another means of testing inter-rater reliability is to have raters determine which category each observation falls into and then calculate the percentage of agreement between the raters. So, if the raters agree 8 out of 10 times, the test has an 80% inter-rater reliability rate (Swain et al, 2000).

Factors affecting reliability

Factors related to testing which affect the reliability of a test are the length of the test, the content of the test, characteristics of test items, and spread of scores. If the time for taking a test is short then the reliability of the test will be affected. If the content of the test is not representative of the whole content to be tested then the reliability of the test will be reduced. The more spread of the test score, the less the reliability of a test. Factors related to testee which affect the reliability of a test are; heterogeneity of the group, test wiseness of the students, and motivation of the students. The time limit of the test and the cheating opportunity given to the students are the factors related to the testing procedure that affect the reliability of the test (Linn & Gronlund, 2003).

Reference: 

Kubiszyne, T., &Borich, G. (2003). Educational testing and measurement: Classroom application and practice (7^thed.). New York: John Wiley & sons. 

Linn, R. L., &Gronlund, N.E. (2000). Measurement and assessment in teaching (8^thed.).    Delhi:                     Pearson Education.

Rehman, A. (2007). Development and validation of objective test items analysis in the subject physics for class IX in Rawalpindi city. Retrieved May 12, 2009, from International                               Islamic University, Department of Education Web site:                                                                             http://eprints.hec.gov.pk/2518/1/2455.htm.

Swain, S. K., Pradhan, C., &Khotoi, S. P. K. (2000). Educational measurement: Statistics and guidance. Ludhiana: Kalyani.

Taiwo, A. A. (1995). Fundamentals of classroom testing. New Delhi: Vikas publishing house.

Measure to Make Assessment Authentic

Authentic assessment strives to reveal what is actually learned by the learners rather than what is obtained from the traditional type of assessment tools such as tests and quizzes. In order to make the assessment authentic, some of the important measures are suggested to be implemented in

classrooms are as given below. visit for more about authentic assessment here

1.    Do it often: Making assessment authentic takes time to be planned and carried out. However, they are rewarding for both the learners and assessors. When the teachers first time start to carry out in a new classroom they will face challenges. Therefore, overcoming challenges and being successful in the effective implementation of the authentic assessment, the teachers need to practice it again and again.

2.    Break it down: In order to avoid overwhelming among the students assessment procedures need to break down in small steps. For small students timeline needs to be set while for elder students, schedules of the tasks should be determined by themselves to be self-regulated learners.  
3.    Don’t dwell on rules: teaches need to keep in mind that while in designing learning tasks, there is no one best way. In the same way, they should take the authentic assessments as they expect the students in completing learning tasks. 
4.     Go backward: while designing lessons teachers are expected to start with the assessment so that they will know what they are intending the students to demonstrate by the end of the lesson. Being aware they will design learning activities according to the set objectives. 

5.   Cater to students’ interests: It is important that teachers try to align the assessment with the interests of the students. Teachers should think about how students will be motivated to deeply engage in their work.
6.   Never underestimate the power of reflection: At last, consider the students’ reflection on the tasks and assessment procedure when it gets completed. Doing this will reinforce them to further clarify and rectify misconceptions through synthesizing what the children have taken the assessment tasks.  Furthermore, the student will develop their morals high knowing that the teachers care about opinions.

Learning Communities in Schools

Teachers discuss during a learning activity

Usually, in many workplaces, the workers work in isolation leading to a competitive culture in which they reluctantly share their strengths and fear admitting weaknesses. However, the learning communities if formed there may provide time and opportunities for the workers to develop collaboration and share freely their successes and failures. Schools as learning communities focus on what is learned not on what is taught. The teachers observe each other’s classes, collect data and identify need improvement areas and collectively find solutions to problems. The focus is not on what teachers plan to do but on what the teachers actually do. 

Educational institutions as learning communities focus on broader community relationships and networks for developing students’ abilities to play their role in the society and creating productive citizens. Economic progress and students’ academic and social achievement may be ensured in schools as learning communities. Educational institutions as learning communities encourage ways to reduce isolation and thus developing collaboration, curriculum integration, up-to-date approaches to academic pursuits for the improvement of students’ learning.

 The effectiveness of learning communities may be enhanced through creating a professional culture. A professional culture within educational institutions involves educational development and a sense of openness to enhance communicating knowledge. Through an inquiry, effective decision making and providing feedback, the benefits of learning communities can be increased. Trust building is a condition of collaboration among the staff for applying new ideas and reflecting on practices.

The education system in Pakistan particularly and in developing countries generally lacks a collaborative culture and the professionals mainly work in isolation. Enquiry, dialogue and discussion among the staff promote a collaborative culture in which professional learning takes place.  An on-going exploring culture needs to be created in a school which develops the skills of problem solving among the teachers through analyzing, evaluating and synthesizing information. Partnerships across educational institutions can support to create a mutually supportive environment in educational institutions. Teachers need improvement in teaching and learning process through collaboration for creating learning communities in schools.

A traditional bureaucratic view has substantially influenced education in Pakistan used during colonial period in South Asia long ago. The model of learning communities can replace the traditional features of bureaucracy, accountability, inspection, strict rules and procedures in education through collaborative professional learning.

Naturalism and curriculum

According to Rousseau’s philosophy of naturalism, the aim of education at the age of 12 to 15 years is to gain useful knowledge which would help them to meet their desires and daily life needs (Khalid, 2005). The designed content of physics by Sindh Textbook Board for secondary school curriculum matches with the aim suggested by Rousseau as to enable the students of secondary classes to improve their knowledge of physics and develop problem-solving, analytic/synthetic, and measuring skills as well as necessary traits of valuing to learn physics, working effectively with others, leading effectively and have scientific attitude.

Content suggested by naturalism contains the knowledge and skills about the occupations at the secondary level. The utilization of such knowledge and skills is important (Khalid, 2005). The content selected for physics in the secondary school curriculum involves such topics, which the students by studying will acquire the required knowledge, skills, and values for different occupations. For example one of the topics in the selected content is electricity. The students are expected to learn subject matter about electrical engineering in the topic of electricity. Other topics are mechanics, forces, etc which lead towards mechanical engineering and space engineering respectively.

The methods of teaching suggested in naturalism are discovery learning and inquiry learning where the teacher needs to let the students discover and inquire on their own (Bhatia, 2004). The physics curriculum designed for secondary classes incorporates the inquiry method and discovery method for some of the topics. For example, the students can be assigned project work to find the relationships between waves and sound. While working on this project the students will  search the library, perform activities in the laboratory, and conduct interviews through appropriate planning under the facilitation of the teacher. This way they discover that where do waves form in daily life and what are the relationships between waves and sound.

The teachers who teach to the students of secondary classes need to carry out this kind of analysis while planning their lessons so that students can be benefited from their styles of learning. There are students in classrooms having the tendency to learn new things through discovery and inquiry approaches. Linking content to philosophies, sociological perspectives, and learning theories may be proved to be an effective technique of teaching.

Reference:

Bhatia, K. K. (2004). Philosophical perspective of education. Ludhiana: Kalyan.
Khalid, T. (1998). Education: an introduction to educational philosophy and history. Islamabad: National book foundation. 

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Broad Field Curriculum

 

           Broad field curriculum has been developed under the critique on subject-centered curriculum which combines together the related subject matter across or disciplines into one broad field of study. The rationale of a broad field curriculum is to draw attention towards the relationships and integration of the content areas and experiences. The broad field design of the curriculum is used to strengthen the interdisciplinary integration for learning. 

It enables students to make linkages between the concepts across different disciplines. Acquisition of knowledge and coverage of content is the emphasis by combining the concepts in different disciplinary areas. An example of broad field design may be of social studies integrating all subjects of history, geography, economics, civics, and sociology.

Apart To its advantage, a broad field curriculum may not be easy to implement as it demands teachers who are trained and having knowledge of content in different subject areas. It is only appropriate at middle and secondary level schools and classes because at higher levels it may be applicable because of the specialized nature of the courses. In a broad field curriculum, students are tending to obtain knowledge at the surface level because of not having an in-depth understanding of a particular subject.

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